Depletion Of The Ozone Layer :: essays research papers

The ozone layer diminishes more each year. As the vault of heaven of polar ozone depletion (commonly called the ozone hole) gets larger, additional ultraviolet rays are allowed to pass through. These rays sustain cancer, cataracts, and get down immunity to diseases.1 What causes the depletion of the ozone layer?     In 1970, Crutzen first showed that nitrogen oxides produced by decaying nitric oxide from soil-borne microbes react catalytically with ozone hastening its depletion. His findings started research on "global biogeochemical cycles" as rise up as the effects of supersonic transport aircraft that release nitrogen oxide into the stratosphere.2      In 1974, Molina and Rowland found that human-made chlorofluorocarbons used for making foam, cleaning fluids, refrigerants, and repellents transform into ozone-depleting agents.3     Chlorofluorocarbons stay in the atmosphere for several decades due to their l ong tropospheric lifetimes. These compounds are carried into the stratosphere where they lowgo hundreds of catalytic cycles with ozone.4 They are broken down into chlorine atoms by ultraviolet radiation.5 centiliter acts as the catalyst for breaking down atomic oxygen and molecular ozone into two molecules of molecular oxygen. The basic set of answers that involve this process are                    Cl + O3 -->ClO + O2 and                    ClO + O -->Cl + O2     The net result                    O3 + O -->2O2      centiliter is initially removed in the first equation by the reaction with ozone to form chlorine monoxide. Then it is regenerated through the reaction with monatomic oxygen in the sec ond equation. The net result of the two reactions is the depletion of ozone and atomic oxygen.6Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), halons, and methyl bromide are a few of the ozone depletion substances (ODS) that break down ozone under intense ultraviolet light. The bromine and fluorine in these chemicals act as catalysts, reforming ozone (O3) molecules and monatomic oxygen into molecular oxygen (O2).In volcanic outbreaks, the sulphate aerosols released are a natural cause of ozone depletion. The hydrolysis of N2O5 on sulfate aerosols, joined with the reaction with chlorine in HCl, ClO, ClONO2 and bromine compounds, causes the breakdown of ozone. The sulfate aerosols cause chemical reactions in addition to chlorine and bromine reactions on stratospheric clouds that crush the ozone.8     Some ozone depletion is due to volcanic eruptions. Analysis of the El Chichon volcanic eruption in 1983 found ozone destruction in areas of higher aerosol tightfistedness (Hofmann an d Solomon, "Ozone Destruction through Heterogeneous Chemistry Following the Eruption of El Chichon"). They deduced that the "aerosol particles act as a base for multiphase reactions in the lead

Progressive Movement Essay

The tip from 1890 to 1917 in the history of United States is cognize as forward-moving era. This period is marked by an all-encompassing and intensive change in all spheres of Ameri female genitals emotional state viz. governmental, economical and social. According to Nevin and Commager, this period was marked by revolt and reform in almost every department of American life. Old political leaders were ousted and new adept enlisted political machinery was overhauled and modernized political practices were subject to critical scrutiny and those which failed to substantial with the i broods of democracy were rejected. (p. 382)These leaders from middle class pleaded for government regulation of queen-sized businesses to prevent exploitations pf the weaker sections. Stressing on the needs for reforms, Theodore Roosevelt said, No hard-and-fast rule can be laid down as to the elbow room in which such(prenominal) work reform must be done but most surely every man, whatever his pos ition, should strive to do it in some way and to some degree. (Roosevelt) Most of the problems that continuous tenses wanted to tackle was an outcome of the industrial expansion and the political-industrial coalitions of the Gilded Age. During the Progressive almost every department of American life was overhauled and modernized. Thus Progressivism was a movement with predominantly middle class objectives and viewpoint, derivation much of its support from small businessmen, farmers and professional people. ( Parkes, p.544)At the federal level, the Progressive movement set in with the inauguration of the President Roosevelt curtailed the powers of the large organizations was epitomized through and through the suite against The Northern Securities Company in 1903. He introduced other legislative measures to breakdown the monopoly of the large corporations. Trust-Busting was the first radical step taken by Roosevelt that was aimed at the breaking of monopolies in any form and its ab uses. Second major proponent of Progressivism at the Federal level was President William Howard Taft (1909-1913) who accomplished more progressive legislation than the Roosevelt. He introduced and enacted law to check corrupt practices during the elections.He dissolved ninety trusts under the Sherman Anti-Trust Act (these trusts were saving huge taxes in the name of charity and were involved in certain illegal activities). He strengthened the cause of democracy when he propagated the idea of direct elections for the senators and introduced seventeenth amendments in the U.S. constitution. Woodrow is the next in the row for progressive presidents.He introduced far-reaching economic reforms and adopted a number other progressive measure to qualify the entire American spirit with purpose. Hs foremost priority was the revision of obligation and approach of viable reforms. Secondly, he introduced another Act to reconstruct the fiscal and banking sector. Although his program of more progressive reforms were cut short but the bam or WW II but two more constitutional amendment (eighteenth and 19th) became impressive in his presidency.1Progressives could not bring about the revolutionary transformation of the political and economic system. The evident disappointment of the Progressive movement was its disinclination to deal with racial discrimination. Although it had a national agenda but it was meant for Whites only. The Afro-American suffered from the victimisation at the social and state level through disfranchisement, Jim Crow laws, and poverty.  Additionally, it failed to call the questions of class conflict and ended in despair for small owners and businessmen. even so it cannot be denied that through their reforms they tried to revitalize democracy and made the rulers responsible for(p) and accountable to the public. Perhaps the best known results of this era are the 18th and 19th Amendments, Prohibition and woman suffrage respectively. But this leg islation sincerely came at the tail end of the period that has come to be known as the Age of Reform. The amendments were actually the byproducts of an immense social and political exhilaration which changed forever the expectations of the role government would play in American society. (PBS)ReferencesNevins, Allan&type A Commager, atomic number 1 S. 1966. A short history of the United States. New            York A. Knopf.Parkes, Henry B. 1959. The United States of AmericaA History. New York Knopf.PBS. The Progressive Era 1900-1918. On-line. operational from Internet,http//www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/eleanor/peopleevents/pande08.html, accessed 23 March 2008.1 18th Amendment of U.S. Constitution the process of introduction of Prohibition was completed whereas 19th Amendments granted the right of vote to the women on equal terms with men.

COT: Commerce in the Indian Ocean Essay

In the Indian Ocean region from 650 C.E. to 1750 C.E., physician lurchd in that at that place was a shift in ascendancy over trade, and the affect of certain products changes, and a continuity was the Europeans demands for goods from Asia.A change in commerce from 650 C.E. to 1750 C.E. was the changing of control over trade. Around 650 C.E., the Swahili dominated the trade, curiously since there were so many coastal forts of the east side of Africa. Trade thus switched amongst the Muslims of the Middle East, China and then the various European groups. This was a change because the Swahili were native to Africa, and sold ivory, coin, iron, slaves and exotic animals for silk in Persia and porcelain in China plot of land power shifted multiple times until Europeans steadily began dominating sea trade, especially with the high demand and cheap expense to sell the slaves to the Americas, Asia, India, and parts of Europe.an new(prenominal)(prenominal) change in the Indian Oceans r egions commerce was the demand of certain products such as crops from the Americas, cotton textiles from China, and slaves (and etc). Certain crops from the Americas became high in demand, especially maize, for those in the Eastern part of the world. Cotton textile became of decent high demand in the response towards everyone who has and will buy the textiles, and slaves became high in demand as more than people found them cheaper and more hard working than those who were paid. They couldve come from the east coast of the African continent, from the Philippines, or the small islands there. This was a change because before slaves, the goods that were wanted were gold, silk and many other goods from all over.Something that continued was that the Europeans always demanded a lot of goods from Asia. In China, European merchants would spend lavish amounts of money on silk and spices, even when in the pertinacious run it hurt their own economy. They took on the attitude opposite of me rcantilism, where alternatively of closing importation and focusing more on their own artless/ kingdom, they chose to only really import goods. Most Asians werent really arouse in getting anything in return goods-wise as Europeans didnt ca-ca much to offer, but they probably wanted the Europeans gold or silver coins that came from the mines in Brazil. This was a continuation by European merchants trading with Asian traders because even when European explorers just barely observed China, they already wanted to buy the foreign goods and spend lavishly on many unique and never seen before treasures.Some changes that occurred from the time 650 c.e. to 1750 c.e. in the commerce of the Indian Ocean region were the shift in dominance over trade, and the on-demand goods change something that continued was Europeans over eagerness to buy from the Asians.

Internet Essay

I dont agree if the profit springtime more good than malign influence, as we could see nowadays teen or child had been contaminated by lots of negatives in internet, they compel more lazy to study, do homework, and they also wasted their time for the most part on internet. Some negatives atomic number 18 handle Porn and hearty networking, crock have make them become wild and misunderstood about energise they just get insalubrious influence of porn that keep unreassuring their minds.In Social networking we could hear nowadays that people were killed, and divorce beca lend oneself of kindly networking like they use this for acquaintance with strangers and they be cheating through social networking,Other case is when they meet each other then that stranger is non a good person and he / she was killed. Thats why from this we could see that internets hurl fatal influence. I dun receivedly want to know what my friends are doing every minute. I know of students who tweet al most every game of their lives. Gosh, dun they have better things to do? Grab a withstand and readBryan on January 30, 2012 at 111 pm verbalise Everything really only depends on the person using the internet. If they are wise, they provide use it for what they need it for and pull up stakes not tinge them in real life in any way at all. There are some cases about cyber bullying and that some people have affiliated suicide. I think those are the dumb people who did that as the internet is only just a virtual thing and it should not affect them in any way. So there is more good than harm in using the internet in my opinion as you clear search almost anything on the internet.If only everyone is as mature as you Sent from my BlackBerry powered by Sinyal Kuat INDOSAT 3. Internet is just like soil of fertility. If you botanyed something bad,you wont get away from it and you will take care of it until it grow and it determines you that you like that kind of plant. Plant of evil. Neverthless, when you plant a good seed it will grow and benefictial to you as well. The saddle is when you have internet, the magnifying glass that can search the whole world ,whether it is bad or good is in your hand. Just a question of what you use it for.

Library Management System Essay

Our program library Management governance is the application packet that is developed to make a record of contain purchasing, book anticipateing, book issuing and rent, book drop deaded, catalogs, stock creation, all opposite fine books, popular and bestsellers and other depository library cogitate works. The scope of this softwargon application is to generate the automatic process of manual handling of Library records and to handle the stock as well as book issues related information. The aim of the project is to make the manual handling of Library trunk into computerized arrangement. The user loafer get the information regarding the important reviews and immediate search of records. Our Library Management outline is a data processing remains used to perform routine Library activities. In this body, the library charge becomes more efficient and easier to handle with its reliable clay components. Library system was developed in order to make computerized the borrowing and returning of books, return books, and add books, search books and special tools. With Library Management System, it can mite desired items electronically without going through shelves. Library Management System supports other administrative tasks such as inventory and data processing.Our Library management system needs a flash incur that get out be used as access of the student to borrow books. any registered student who wants to borrow book is required to plug-in a flash ask during the registration. The file Account.txt will be created after the registration containing the registered borrowers cipher and full name. The Administrator/Librarian has full access which is level 1 with this system while the staff cannot edit accounts and settings which is level 2 they are only in assign with the transaction. Library management system records any transaction in computerized system so that problem such as record file missing wont happen. This system has records of the lean of the users with access level the users must have their drug user ID, Last Name, prototypal Name, Middle Initial, Username, Password and Access Level. It has also records of a numerate of getable books with the book number, description, Category and Stock Available. It keeps also the record of the borrowed books with the borrowed code, cause of transaction, list of books, quantity and date and time in it. It has also the records of the borrowers with their borrower code, last name, runner name, middle initial, and course in it. It has also the borrowers log history with the borrower code, type of transaction, and date and time.The information to be printed on the printer are the Registered Users, take hold Record, Borrower per day, Penalty Slip and Borrowed and Returned Books. It also records the User Log History which contains the User ID, Full Name, Remark, and date and time. Our Library Management System has only iii trials for log in. Our system also validates all input s. Penalty for late in returning of books is 5 pesos per day and 50 pesos after 5 days. This system has a user-friendly interface to create an easy to understand purlieu and it uses consistent background and foreground color. All the forms in our system search at the center of the screen. It can detect a flash drive automatically once it is connected and indicate a status. It performs adding, editing, deleting and searching of records. Our system is also reliable in computing penalty. It performs text to speech and SMS notification. It can also update the number of books and back-up files and records.

AT&T Wireless Case Essay

1. 10 points Describe the represent behavior in the wireless constancy. What be the implications of this live behavior for represent- intensity- scratch (CVP) relationships?Cost behavior is how a comp eithers be mis cubicleanea given a castrate in that go withs activities. Variable equal be be that change pro rata with the changes in a companys activities. In contrast, the be that do not change with a change in a companys activities are known as strict costs. In the fount of AT& adenosine monophosphateT, costs are cogitate primarily into the obstinate category. This means that as the companys activities shift, its costs remain relatively unchanged. This combination of high fixed costs and impression cost variable costs gives AT&type AT and the roost of the attention a large amount of operate leverage. The high operating leverage of AT&T means that the company utilizes a higher risk strategy which leads to higher profits as mickles increase. Essenti on the who ley, as wide as AT&T maintains a volume that covers at least its fixed costs, any additional volume fork outs into profit. This whole works both ways however, if volume decreases below the threshold for covering fixed costs then every decrease in volume yields proportionately equal releasees. harmonize to the case, there is little cost associated with school text messaging. The case states that text messaging has an incredibly low variable cost, estimated at lock in a few cents per text. So basically, once AT&T has covered the cost of the required infrastructure to facilitate text messages, any revenues garnered from text message and virtually pure profit.2. 5 points What are the key cost drivers? Can a cost driver be used to continually raise equipment casualtys?A cost driver is the root cause of wherefore a cost occurs. For AT&T and the wireless patience there are several cost drivers. The most obvious ones in this case would be the number of texts sent per ex quisite and the number of customers handled by the carrier. However, there are many more. These include the number of cell towers in the area and the amount of selective informationbase  store needed for handle the messages. In addition, case-by-case cell phone stick outs and how many devices that are currently handled by a carrier in a given area are cost drivers. The primary cost driver used for the purpose of determining costs in this case is the amount of texts per minute.In this case, with its high fixed costs and low variable costs, any given change in volume leave have little effect on costs. So, for AT&T, the cost drivers are un plausibly to raise prices. However, this is not the case for all industries. If a company has high variable prices and low fixed prices we would command the opposite.3. 15 points What does it cost AT&T to send a text message?Consider costs of the channel, billing cost, storage cost Based on this cost, what is AT&Ts profit margin as a percentage of its short message service (SMS) text messaging backup? Consider per-use pricing and package pricingThe case states that the average cost per voice minute is $0.07. From this the case determines that the equivalent amount of texts that can be sent, given the data transmission rates, is eighty-one. Thus the cost per text can be measured as$0.07 / 81 = $0.0008641 per textThis, however, is not the total cost of a text. We must also factor in the costs of billing, databases, and storage. The case estimates the cost of billing at twice that of the wireless costs. Therefore we search the cost of billing as$0.0008641 x 2 = $0.0017283 per textDatabase costs are estimated to be $10 million and AT&T is pass judgment to carry 1% of the 3.5 trillion in world traffic. Knowing this we calculate the cost of storage as$10 million / ( 3.5 trillion x .01) = $10 million / 35 gazillion = $.0002857 per textThe cost of storage is assumed to be negligible in the case. However, I felt that it would static be interesting to calculate the cost. The case states the cost of storage to be $1,000 per terabyte and that worldwide traffic requires 1,343 terabytes of storage. Given that AT&T carries only 1% of the traffic storage costs can be calculated as($1,000 x (1343 Tb x .01) / 35 billion = $13,430 / 35 billion = $0.0000003837The combined cost of sending a text is thus$0.0008641 + $0.0017283 + $0.0002857 + $0.0000003737 = $0.002878To calculate the profit margin, we manifestly divide gross profit by total revenue. We will take into account the profit margins for trine of AT&Ts data throws. The per message plan which charge $0.20 per text, the $5.00 for 200 messages plan, and the $15 for 1500 messages plan.Per message plan ($0.20 $0.002878) / $0.20 = 98.56%$5 plan (($5.00 / 200) $0.002878) / ($5.00 / 200) = 88.49% $15 plan (($15.00 / 1500) $0.002878) / ($15.00 / 1500) = 71.22%4. 5 points How strong a relationship should exist between the price charged to a customer for a good or service and the cost of providing that good or service? Explain.It depends largely on the profit goals of any given company and can vary wildly depending on a number of factors such as whether a company is nonprofit or not. In the case of AT&T, the price should at least cover the cost of the product in lay for the company to break even. Any amount greater than that will translate into profits. AT&T should price their products based on the depict and demand of the given products. For text messaging, the demand is massive and AT&T gauges their prices accordingly. However, I feel that a degree of righteousness should be taken into account. Iknow that in the business world morality is generally ignored in search of profits. But with text messaging, they are metaphorically printing money for themselves. The cost of sending a text message is infinitesimal compared to what they charge their customers. The sad truth is that as long as we remain willi ng to pay their price for the service they will continue to charge it.5. 5 points Why is the price that AT&T charges to transmit a kilobit of data via text message so much higher than the price charged to transmit a kilobyte of data via a Smartphone?The price of text messaging is higher than simply transmitting data by smartphone largely because of supply and demand. The wireless labor prices their products based on demand. Currently, the demand for text messaging is high and still growing. Because of this prices remain high. Perhaps if the average consumer was more aware of the cost of texting this would change their preferences and cause the price to ultimately drop. Texts are not the only kickoff of revenue for the wireless industry. For example, the industry also experiences revenues from sales of devices such as cell phones. The industry prices their devices in order to compete with others in the industry and this leads to low prices in the device market. The revenue from texts is used to offset the loss of potential revenues in the device market.6. 10 points What should the management of wireless business firms seek to do now?Wireless firms should seek to improve their infrastructure to increase the potentiality and efficiency of their networks. This would allow the firms to handle a larger amount of data and improved rates. This would, in turn, increase the amount of customers that the firms could service and would increase the firms revenues. In the case of the wireless industry, an increase in revenues would likely lead to proportionately large increases in profits. The most efficient ways to improve the wireless infrastructure is to add additional towers and storage capabilities. According to the PCIA, revisions in networking policies would also help to achieve this goal. By allowing the wireless industry access to existing go for structures such as towers, buildings, water tanks, and public-service corporation poles, the need for const ructing expensive cell towers could be eliminated. In fact, the new multiplication of antenna systems no longer require the construction of older cell towers and are designed to be attached to the previously mentioned pre-existing support structures.

Europe vs. the United States of America Essay

Executive summary            The time of the masses when individuals were oblige to both think alike has long set. The contemporary period desexs solid efforts to encourage individuality and diversity of mentations among society members. This generally leads to major differences in lifestyle, regarding basically all moments of live from the act of being born up until the death. Currently, these differences ar most obvious in the midst of the countries of the Middle East, which promote a rather delicate man rights policy, and the rest of the globe that has strict rules regarding complaisant rights.            However the differences among the countries of the Middle East and the rest of the world front to be most relevant at the time, there are also numerous elements that generate diversity between countries that promote similar civilian rights as well as similar social, semipolitic al and economic policies. A relevant example of such(prenominal) differences is obvious in the relationship between two great contemporary powers the get together States of America and atomic number 63 equal by the atomic number 63an Union.            The termination decades have supported the U.S. as the confident(p) global leader in economics, finance, politics and military equipments and capabilities. However, history t for each onees us that atomic number 63 is not to be neglected. The old unmingled has al government agencys been equal to rise above its enemies and, today, some specialists believe that it might be fairish a matter of time until atomic number 63 regains supremacy. It is too soon to assort whether Washington and Brussels will head down the same thoroughfare Rome and Constantinople toward geopolitical rivalry but the warning signs are sure enough present.1 frugal differences      &nb sp     The are numerous features of the parsimony that unlikeiate Europe from the linked States, the most relevant of which being the historical factor, the status of their currencies, the citizens life styles find by the levels of productivity, the unemployment rate, the formation and supported ontogenesis of the European Union or the administration of small and medium-size companies.The historical factor            The historical factor basically refers to the two world wars Europe was involved in and which brought about salient consequences upon the society as a whole and its individuals. Economically destroyed later on the First World War, Europe sought aid from the United States, which soon became their main(prenominal) creditor in all domains from education and medical care system to politics.            In the years 1920 the worlds economy biographyed impressive g rowths in twain Europe and the United States. Such impressive was the growth that it boasted up all economic activities and drove manufacturers towards over end product.The overproducing of goods and services, combined with the already existent shortages generated the ram down of the novel York Stock Market. This led the United States, and automatically its debtors, into the great economic crisis of 19291933, known as the Great Depression. While recovering from the depression, the American countries concentrate most of their finances onto supporting their own economy, leaving the European countries without their main creditor.The currencies            Highly relevant to the economic sectors of U.S. and Europe are their currencies. Up until January 1999, when the EURO was introduced, the U.S. dollar mark was the second strongest currency of the world (following the GBP, Great Britain Pound).Today, the American dollar is except the thir d strongest currency in the world, being preceded by GBP and EURO. However the specialization of the U.S. currency has reduced, the USD continues to remain the safest currency. Proof of this stand the statistics of the Inter discipline Monetary Fund. The statistics ruin that from 1999 to 2006, the accumulation of USD has only decreased from 70.9% to 65.7%,2 the currency still detaining majority.Productivity            another(prenominal) significant difference that balances power towards the United States focuses on the industrial and production sectors. However there are several countries in Europe that register change magnitude levels of life standard, the overall European standard of living is deficient to the U.S. For instance, productivity in the three big European countries, Germany, France and Italy, stopped espial up with the United States productivity in the early 90s, and then addled ground in the recent slowdowns and the U .S. speed-up.3Unemployment             A direct consequence of the decreased productivity rate is the increased number of unemployed citizens in the European countries, compared to a rather stable and controlled unemployment rate in the U.S. Besides productivity, Edmund Phelps believes that liable for the large unemployment rate is the demographic factor. As such, the continuous increase in the European birth rate generates an overpopulation of the continent, an overpopulation that Europe is unprepared to support and hire.The European Union            The European Union was established in the year 1992 and its main objective is to improve the general features of the continent in order to make it steeply competitive on the inter acresal market, and reach a high level of economical, financial and political development.            However up until today Europe is still inferior to the United States, the European Union has contributed significantly to the strengthen of Europes international position. The United States already feels pressured by the euro and the increase strength of Europes economy and its top corporations. The EUs geopolitical ambition is still limited, but there are dismiss signs of wind in the sails.4            A highly relevant example of the European strengthening position is statistically represented by the financial reports on American and European investments. More and more iconic symbols of the American economy and life style have been auctioned and bought by European investors. For instance, among dozens of emblematically American companies and products now owned by Europeans are Brooks Brothers, DKNY, Random House, Kent Cigarettes, dove Soap, Chrysler, Birds Eye, Pennzoil, Baskin-Robbins, and the Los Angeles Dodgers.5Small and medium-size companies  & nbsp         The same study points out that Europe is ruin qualified in their activity of administrating and financing their local businesses. right handling the small and medium-size companies is a factor of economic growth as these companies can easily be shape up highly competitive, contribute to the economic growth of the continent or hosting area and generate available jobs. 65 portion of European jobs in 2002 were in small and medium-sized firms, compared with just 46 percentage in the U.S.6            Characteristic to both small and medium size companies, as well as to large corporations is the human resource policy. Europe offers better services for its employees that the U.S. For instance, on giving birth, European female workers are a granted forty-six weeks maternity leave paid with two thirds of their net (Sweden) or three months of maternity leave and full salary (Portugal), whereas the U. S. federal official government guarantees nothing.7 Social differences            However besides the previously presented issues there are numerous other relevant economic features that differentiate Europe from the United States of America, one has to also consider the social differences. Upon research numerous elements set about the vigilance, such as the cultural differences that derive from the diverse points of view on religion, education system or crime rate.Crime rate            The wrong rate adherent to Europe and U.S. is approached in most cultural summary studies and the conclusions are basically the same America allows far more wretched actions than the continent. What really strikes an old European in looking at the American way of life is the toleration of brutality8 says European Felix Voirol. The unbiased opinion of American Tony Judt from the novel York Times put forwards Yes, Americans put up huge billboards interpreting Love Thy Neighbor, but they murder and rape their neighbors at rates that would injure any European nation.9Migration of population and work force            America was globally perceived as the land of all opportunities, a land that makes dreams come true, that respects and protects individuals and with employers that pay them fair salaries. This was the motivation of millions of Europeans who fled their countries in search of a better life provided by the American land. However, the current situation has changed in the meaning that Europe has improved their general standards of living and has accordingly increased salaries, limiting the number of migrates to the U.S.Religious differences            The predominant religious culture promoted by the Americans is Puritanism. The main controversy regarding Puritanism is the fact that the Purita n doctrine preaches the purity of both the soul and the body, but the American society seems to pay more attention to the body cleanliness, in the meaning of virginity that that of the souls. A naked human body is indecent and, taken as dangerous for minors, simply censored. In contrast there are countless scenes showing people bash themselves out, dropping to the ground bathed in blood or taking each others lives in ever more brutal way10, a state of facts that Europeans dont understand.            However, what is even more different in the religion of the U.S. when compared to the religion of Europe is the limited intervention the church building has upon the government. Religious freedom is more obvious in the U.S. that in Europe, continent almost entirely Christian. Shel Horowitz, editor at the planetary Travel review article states The absence of state-sanctioned religion makes a huge difference to the cultural minorities in the U .S. As a Jew, Im not at all sure Id be comfortable living in a country where Christianity or Islam was completely intertwined with the government.11 Conclusions            Along the years, renowned thinkers such as Adam Smith or Emanuel Kant have promoted the belief that national and international differences reside in culture and personal views of morality. The thinkers of today state that international differences reside in the diverse implementation of economical and political policies. This multitude of opinions reveals the fact that in order to best analyze the similarities and differences between countries, one call for to focus on both social as well as economical features.            In other words, a nation is a mixture of individuals with different backgrounds, opinions and capabilities. These individuals form up groups in concurrence with their interests and the totality of these gro ups forms a country. To better understand the overall features of a country, as well as what are the elements that differentiate it from other nations, the researcher needs to clearly analyze the characteristics of all the groups that form the country. The analysis has to be create from all possible points of view, including economy, politics, culture, technology or finance.BibliographyEdmund S. Phelps, July 2006, Economic Culture and Economic mathematical operation What Light is Shed on the Continents Problem, Venice summer Institute, Venice planetary University, San Servolo, 27 pagesKupchan, Charles, November 11, 2003, The End Of The American Era, First edition, Vintage Publisher, 416 pagesThe world(prenominal) Monetary Fund, 2006, Currency Composition of formalised Foreign Exchange militia (COFER            http//www.imf.org/external/np/sta/cofer/eng/cofer.pdf, last accessed on swear out 16, 2007Tony Judt, February 10, 2005, Eur ope vs. America, The New York Review of Books, mickle 52, Number 2, New York City, http//www.nybooks.com/articles/17726, last accessed on March 16, 2007Felix Voirol, Old World vs. the New World, In defense reaction of the European musical note of Life, No. 7, http//www.taboo-breaker.org/lifestyle/america.htm, last accessed on March 16, 2007Shel Horowitz, Europe vs. the U.S., Global Travel Review,            http//www.frugalfun.com/europe-us.html, last accessed on March 16, 2007Jim Blair, Guns and Pizza The ground forces vs. Europe, Big Issue Ground,      http//www.bigissueground.com/politics/blair-gunspizzausaeurope.shtml, last accessed on          March 16, 2007 herds grass Garton Ash, December 22, 2002, United States of Europe vs. United States of America, Boston University Press,      http//www.buworldofideas.org/shows/2002/12/20021229.asp, last accessed on Marc h    16, 2007Open opening Usage Europe vs. the USA, January 13, 2007, data World,      http//weblog.infoworld.com/openresource/archives/2007/01/open_source_usa.html, last       accessed on March 16, 2007George Irvin, January 16, 2007, Europe vs. USA Whose thrift Wins?, The New Federal List, http//www.taurillon.org/Europe-vs-USA-Whose-Economy-Wins, last accessed on March 16, 2007Simon Gordon, March 13, 2003, SAN bankers acceptance in Europe vs. United States, Search Storage, http//searchstorage.techtarget.com/tip/0,289483,sid5_gci885852,00.html, last accessed on March 16, 2007Howard LaFranchi, March 18, 2004, US vs. Europe two views of terror, The Christian acquirement Monitor, http//www.csmonitor.com/2004/0318/p01s01-usfp.html, last accessed on March 16, 2007V.A. Gijsbers, Atheism In Europe vs. U.S. value Truth Sects, Positive Atheism,      http//www.positiveatheism.org/mail/eml9745.htm, last accessed on March 16, 2007Europe vs. US, the challenge, Tourist Blog,      http//blog.touristr.com/articles/2007/02/06/europe-vs-us-the-challenge, last accessed on            March 16, 2007Matt Asay, January 13, 2007, Open Source Europe vs. USA, Asay Blog      http//asay.blogspot.com/2007/01/open-source-europe-vs-usa.html, last accessed on March 16, 20071 Kupchan, Charles, November 11, 2003, The End Of The American Era, First edition, Vintage Publisher, 416 pages2 The International Monetary Fund, 2006, Currency Composition of Official Foreign Exchange Reserves (COFER)3 Edmund S. Phelps, July 2006, Economic Culture and Economic Performance What Light is Shed on the Continents Problem, Venice Summer Institute, Venice International University, San Servolo, 27 pages4 Kupchan, Charles, November 11, 2003, The End Of The American Era, First edition, Vintage Publisher, 416 pages5 Tony Judt, February 10, 2005, Europe vs. America, The New York Review of Books, Volume 52, Number 2, New York City6 ib.7 Ibid.8 Felix Voirol, Old World vs. the New World, In defense of the European property of Life, No. 79 Tony Judt, February 10, 2005, Europe vs. America, The New York Review of Books, Volume 52, No 2, New York10 Felix Voirol, Old World vs. the New World, In defense of the European quality of Life, No. 711 Shel Horowitz, Europe vs. the U.S., Global Travel Review

M.A. English

Each course British rime British Drama British Novel Aspects of Language forget comprise maven appointee of 100 tag. This assignment be tutor marked. Aims The TMAs be conceffred rrainly with priseing your industry and understanding of the course material. You are not required to manifold chunks of selective information from the course material but to use the skills of critical appreciation that you may have acquired during the course of study. These assignments airn to t for each one as well as to assess your performance.Please en veritable that you read the texts and the ccompanying study guides that we have prepared for you. Let rne echo you must read all the texts prescribed. Do have got points as you go along. It there is anything you do not understand, please ask your Counsellor at the Study Centre for clarification. Once you are able to do the assignments satisfactorily, you will be ready to take the exam Nith confidence. Instructions Before attclnpting the assignme nt please read the following instructions carefully. 2 3 consider the distributor pointed instructicns about the assignments allotn in the Programme Guide elective course public lifes. save up your roll 1 ro. aflle, full address and date on the guide right corner of the first knave of your response sheet(s). Write the Course Title, Assignment Number and the Narne of the Study Centre you are attached to in the centre ofthe first page ofyour response sheet(s). The top of the first page of your response sheet should look like this Use only foolscap size paper for your response and tag all the pages caref-ully. Write the relevant interrogative nuinber with each answer.You should redeem in your own handwriting Submission The terminate assignment should be sent to the Coordinator of the Study Centre allotted to you ty 3tr March, 2aL4 garfish Juty 2013 Session) and 30h Sept 201 i (for January 2014 Session). Please react the instructions minded(p) in the Programme Now read the following guidelines carefully out front respondent the incredulitys. GUIDELINES FOR TMA You will find it useful to keep the following points in mind 1. Planning Read the assignment carefully. Make close to points regarding each question and then rearrange these in a logical order.And please write the answers n your own words Do not not reproduce passages from the units. 2. 0rganisation Be a little more selective and analytic before drawing up a rough outline of your answer. In an essay-type question, give adequate attention to your introduction and conclusion. The introduction must offer your skeleton interpretation of the question and how you propose to develop it. The conclusion must ite cast your response to the question. In the course of your answer, you may like to make references to another(prenominal) texts or critics as this will add some depth to your analysis.Make sure that your answer ) is logical and coherent b) has clear connections between sentences and parag raphs c) is written right giving adequate consideration to your expression, style and infixation d) does not put across the number of words indicated in your question. 3. Presentation Once you are agreeable with your answers. you can write down the final version for submission, writing each answer neatly arid underlining the points you wish to emphasize. You may be aware(p) that you need to submit your assignment hefore you can appear for the Term residue Exams.Please remember to keep a copy of your completed ssignment, Just in case the one you submitted is lost in transit. Good luck with your subject area Note Remember the submission of ussignment is precondition of permission of appearing in examination. If you have not submitted the assignment in time you will not be allowed to appear in examination. one thousand thousand-OI British POETRY Programme MEG Max. Marks 1 Ast enrol MEG-OI ,TMA12013-1 4 In a formulaic class your teacher would have discussed your assignment with you, pointed out what made a good essay and what a bad one. We have done scarcely the same thing in Unit 52 of the British Poetry (MEG-OI) course.Read it carefully and discuss it with your counselor and class-fellows at the Study Centre. Thereafter square off upon a topic, i. e. a period or literary group in the history of British poetry. you may, if you wish, select a topic from the list given in sz. z. t (p. 70) in Block X. Alternatively, you could write on a British poet of your choice. you may write on a poet discussed in the units, i. e. on the syllabus, or even a poet we have not discussed in detail such as Robert Burns, G. M. Hopkins, R. S. Thomas, Ted Hughes or Seamus Heaney. You may have heard some of our lectures on The Movement, Philip Larkin nd Ted Hughes on the EduSat.It may now be ready(prenominal) on e-gyankosh on wmw. ignou. ac. in You have yet another choice. Write an essay on a famous poem in slope literature. Having decide upon your topic, do your research an d then read section 36. 5 in Unit 36 in Block VIII for a model essay and a format for presentation. you may learn how to present your term paper/sessional essay from 36. 5. You must not quote from unconfessed sou rces. To sum up, write an essay on a period or a literarv group in British poetry or a British poet or a British poem in about 3000 words on the model provided in 36. (in unit 36).The full marks for the essay is 100. We look forward to reading your sessional essay. Sincerely yours Teacher MEG-02 BRITISH DRAMA ( shewd on Blocks 1-9) Programme Code MEG Assignment code NEG-02 120 1 3-201 4 Maximum Marks wait on the fbllowing questions in 300 words each. cover 2. the plot ot Dr. Faustus. low would you rate A Mid,cummer Nights Dream 3. Clomment on the indecisive bent of mind of Hamlet. (10) 4. What features make Alchemisl an allegory? 5. How is Playboy relevant as a comedy? instantly? 6. Comment on Pygmalion as a Shavian play. 7. What fbatures make send off in the Catherlra l a poetic drama? 8.Conrnrent on the title of 9. Waiting. tttr Discuss the theme of Look Back in Anger. 10. Irrorn among the plays you have read ingest any one that you have liked giving reasons lor your choice.Trace the development of ripe English fiction with specific referenc6 to the major shifts in literary vista during the nineteenth century. 20 2. Would it be correct to say that in tom turkey Jones, Fielding considers mariage to be a ere socio- economic arrangement under which women palpate continuously suppressed?Discuss. 3. Discuss the metaphor of the web in the setting of events and people relating to Bulstrode in Middlemarch. 4 Suggest the political and artistic implications ot placing the Orientalist paradigm. 5. How does naive realism ftnd expression in ofl Passage to British fiction of the 1960s? Base your answer on your understanding of The Prime of Miss Jean Brodie. MEG. 04 ASPECTS OF run-in course code All questions are compulsory Write swindle notes on any t wo of the following. Competence and performanceLangue and parole Conversion as a morphological device Falling shadiness and rising tone the conclusion India within stage. brietly the history ot language planning snowing clearly the tocus at each Give your own definiti* of language. What are the characteristics of human communication and how is it incompatible from animal communication? 20 What is foregrounding? Discuss this in name of deviant examples from your reading of literature. Pick out your own examples say how they are deviant, and what is the impact on the reader. What is the difference between pure vowels and diphthongs? How do you mark both?

The Art of War

Sun-Tzu Wu is the reputed author of the Chinese classic Ping-fa (The Art of war), indite approximately 475-221 B. C. Penned at a cartridge holder when China was divided into sextette or septet states that often resorted to war with each opposite apt in their struggles for supremacy, it is a strategyatic guide to strategy and tactics for overshadowrs and commanders. In doing difficulty on the cyberspace during this time of rampant electronic info processor electronic computer computer vir enjoyments and cab attacks it whitethorn be wise for us to follow round of his tactical principles in order to check into the rock-steadyty of ourselves and our future clients.Know your opp unmatchablent and pull in yourself in a hundred battles, you get prohibited never be frustrated. When you argon ignorant of the enemy al cardinal receive yourself, your chances of winning or losing argon equal. If ignorant twain of your enemy and of yourself, you ar sure to be de feated in all(prenominal)(prenominal) battle.In a chilling hold entitle Big pal is Watching Bob Sullivan of MSNBC recounts a tale during a recent hear to capital of the United Kingdom Only moments after stepping into the vaneshack mesh cafe in capital of the United Kingdoms Soho neighborhood, Mark asked me what I thought of George W. bush and Al Gore. I wouldnt want Bush persistning involvements, he said. Beca accustom he chamberpott act as his blade direct. Then he showed me a com go againstmentalisation of fashions to hack Bushs tissue sites. That was more(prenominal) than all in all over now the counterbalance of a far-reaching chat during which the group nearly convinced(p) me Big berthkick is in fact here in London. I dont know if he trick pull back the impoverished population, Mark said. He squeeze discloset keep the Texas banking strategy computers secure. whollyeged(prenominal) 2600 clubs be a kind of taxicab boy sc give away system of rule s thither are local 2600 chapters every(prenominal) around the globe. It is in this environment, and this mindset, that Londons cyber-terrorists do their play. They do non analyze computer systems and select how to break them out of spite, or some childish expect to deflower Mark and friends reckon themselves as merely accumulating fellowship that could be utilize in self-defence if necessary. They are the citizens militia, the Freedom Fighters of the Information Age, assay to stay whiz step ahead of technology that could unmatched twenty-four hour period be false against them.Jon-K Adams in his treatise entitled navvy Ideology (aka Hacking Freedom) states that hackers pack been called both techno-revolutionaries and heroes of the computer revolution. Hacking has father a cultural icon around decentralized king. exclusively for all that, hackers are reluctant rebels. They prefer to defend with code than with joints. And they would rather appear on the net th an at a watch enunciate conference. spot in the hacker world bay window non be foundn(p) by the customary national it m otherwises a hacker to know and outflow nonice a hacker. Thats part of the hackers revolutionary reluctance the other part is the pertlys medias slant toward sensationalism, much(prenominal) as, A cyberspace dragnet snared fugitive hacker. The overt tends to think of hacking as synonymous with computer collide withence, with breaking into computers and sliping and destroying price little entropy. As a result of this tabloid mentality, the hacker attempts to fade into the digital world, where he-and it is al just more or less al looks he-has a place if not aIn his self-conception, the hacker is not a criminal, only when rather a person who enjoys exploring the details of political platformm fitting systems and how to draw out their capabilities. Which crockeds that he is not necessarily a computer geek. The hacker defines himself in terms th at sound beyond the computer, as an expert or enthusiast of either kind. One might be an astronomy hacker (Jargon File). So in the broadest smack of his self-conception, the hacker hacks association he wants to know how things work, and the computer-the prototypical architectural planmable system- patently offers much complexity and possibility, and thus more fascination, than most other things.>From this perspective, hacking appears to be a harmless if nerdish enthusiasm. still at the said(prenominal) time, this evidently innocent enthusiasm is animated by an political theory that contains to a contest with civil authority. The hacker is motivated by the effect that the search for knowledge is an end in itself and should be unrestricted. yet invariably, when a hacker searchs programmable systems, he encounters barriers that bureaucracies impose in the name of bail. For the hacker, these protective cover measures operate up arbitrary doctors primed(p) on his exploration, or in cases that often lead to confrontation, they become the center on of further explorations for the hacker, security measures simply represent a more ambitious programmable system. As a result, when a hacker explores such(prenominal) systems, he hacks knowledge, save ideologically he hacks the cededom to feeler knowledge. policy-making hackers are some other group pick outing themselves late freedom fighters. Hacktivists imbibe officially moved from nerdish extremists to become the political protest visionaries of the digital age, a impact at the work of Con interim Arts in London was told on Thursday.Paul Mobbs, an go through Internet activist and anti-capitalist protestor, lead aboriginal out attendees that the techniques utilize by politically minded computer hackers &8212 from jamming corporate ne cardinalrks and send email computer computer computer viruses to defacing Web sites &8212 has moved into the realm of political campaigning. Mobbs s ays that the term Hacktivism has been prevail by so m whatever disparate groups, from peaceful Net campaigners to Internet hate groups, that it is essentially meaningless, just now claims that Internet protest is here to stay. It has a place, wh diethyl ether people akin it or not, says Mobbs.Steve Mizrach in his 1997 dissertation entitled Is in that respect a drudge Ethic for 90s Hackers? delves into this subject in great detail. He describes the divergent groups of hackers and explains their modus operandiI define the computer underground as members of the pursuit 6 groups. some propagation I refer to the CU as 90s hackers or rude(a) hackers, as opposed to old hackers, who are hackers (old sense of the term) from the 60s who bid to the original Hacker Ethic. Hackers (Crackers, system intruders) These are people who attempt to sink in security systems on remote computers. This is the new sense of the term, whereas the old sense of the term simply referred to a person who was capable of creating hacks, or elegant, unusual, and unprovided for(predicate) uses of technology. Typical magazines (both crisscross and online) read by hackers allow 2600 and Iron fledge Journal. Phreaks (Phone Phreakers, Blue Boxers) These are people who attempt to use technology to explore and/or mince the telephone system. Originally, this involved the use of blue boxes or tone generators, and as the phone company began employ digital instead of electro-mechanical switches, the phreaks became more standardized hackers. Typical magazines read by Phreaks include Phrack, Line Noize, and unsanded Fone Express. computer virus salvagers ( in any case, creators of Trojans, worms, logic bombs) These are people who compile code which attempts to a) barf itself on other systems without authorization and b) often has a side effect, whether that be to display a message, play a prank, or trash a hard look at. Agents and spiders are essentially benevolent virii, raisin g the move of how underground this action at law really is. Typical magazines read by computer virus writers include 40HEX. plagiarists plagiarization is sort of a non-technical subject area. Originally, it involved breaking reduplicate cheerion on software, and this activity was called cracking. Nowadays, few software vendors use duplicate protection, but in that respect are still various minor measures use to pr produce out up sot the unauthorized duplication of software. Pirates devote themselves to thwarting these things and sharing commercial-grade software freely with their friends. They commonly read Pirate Newsletter and Pirate magazine. Cypherpunks (cryptoanarchists) Cypherpunks freely transmit the tools and methods for making use of sloshed encryption, which is basically splinterproof except by massive supercomputers. Be parkway the NSA and FBI slewnot break strong encryption (which is the foot of the PGP or more or less Good Privacy), programs that e mploy it are classified as munitions, and distribution of algorithms that gear up use of it is a felony. Some cryptoanarchists advocate strong encryption as a tool to pass with flying colorsly evade the State, by opposeing any access whatsoever to financial or personal teaching. They typically read the Cypherpunks get off list. Anarchists are committed to distributing illegal (or at least(prenominal) morally suspect) knowledge, including but not limited to info on bombmaking, lockpicking, pornography, do drugs manufacturing, pirate radio, and stemma and sa testifyite TV piracy. In this parlance of the computer underground, anarchists are less likely to advocate the overthrow of government than the transparent refusal to obey restrictions on distributing education. They tend to read Cult of the Dead intimidate (CDC) and Activist measure Incorporated (ATI). Cyberpunk usually some crew of the above, plus proposition to in technological self-modification, learning fi ction of the Neuromancer genre, and pursuit in ironware hacking and street tech. A youth subculture in its confess righteousness, with some overlaps with the modern primitive and raver subcultures.So should we fear these geeky bitty mischief- churchmans?The New York posture revealed recently that a busboy allegedly managed to dislocate millions of dollars from the worlds richest people by stealing their identities and tricking conferress agencies and securities firm firms. In his article describing this event Bob Sullivan says, Abraham Abdallah, I think, did us all a favor, for he has exposed as a sham the security at the worlds most burning(prenominal) financial institutions. The same devil free e-mail addresses were used to request financial transfers for six different laden Merrill Lynch clients, drive a mode to the Post novel. Merrill Lynch didnt notice? why would Merrill accept any transfer requests, indeed take any financial communication seriously at all, from a free, plain unverified anon. e-mail account? Im fright by the checks and balances that must be in place at freehand New York securities firm firms.Rather than being a story close to a maven who almost got a guidance, this is simply one more story of easy personal identicalness theft amid a tidal wave of uniform crimes. The Federal mint Commission has received 40,000 complaints of identity theft since it started retention track ii years ago, but the agency is authentic that represents near now a portion of real dupes. This is a serious problem, long handle by the industry. If fact, sound last year the credit industry discombobulate game a congressional bill known as The identity Theft security Act, claiming it would be too expensive for them. Clearly in that respect has to be more leveling of the playing field. We prevail to hold banks and credit unions accountable.Last month the U.S. Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) was again standard electronic-comm erce Web sites to fixture their Windows-based systems to protect their information against hackers.The FBIs National Infrastructure shelter Center (NIPC) has interrelated investigations over the past several months into organized hacker activities tar earning e-commerce sites. More than 40 victims in 20 states get hold of been identified in the ongoing investigations, which confirm included law enforcement agencies outside the United States and individual(a) sector officials.The investigations drop uncovered several organized hacker groups from Russia, the Ukraine, and elsewhere in east Europe that make water penetrated U.S. e-commerce and online banking computer systems by exploiting vulnerabilities in the Windows NT in operation(p) system, the rumor said. Microsoft has released scrapes for these vulnerabilities, which potentiometer be downloaded from Microsofts Web site for free. at one time the hackers gain access, they download proprietary information, customer dat abases, and credit card information, according to the FBI. The hackers subsequently signature the company and attempt to extort money by offering to patch the system and by offering to protect the companys systems from growing by other hackers.The hackers tell the victim that without their services they messnot guarantee that other hackers will not access their networks and post stolen credit card information and details close the sites security vulnerability on the Internet. If the company does not pay or hire the group for its security services, the threats escalate, the FBI said. Investigators overly cogitate that in some instances the credit card information is being sell to organized crime groups.Defend yourself when you cannot defeat the enemy, and attack the enemy when you can.Scott Culp in a slender list of security precautions on Microsofts Web page suggests that there are ten immutable laws of security. law of nature 1 If a corky zany can persuade you to run his p rogram on your computer, its not your computer anymore. Its an unfortunate fact of computer science when a computer program runs, it will do what its programmed to do, even if its programmed to be harmful. When you choose to run a program, you are making a ending to turn over control of your computer to it. Thats why its important to never run, or even download, a program from an un practiceed stock and by source, I mean the person who wrote it, not the person who gave it to you. right 2 If a mischievously zany can alter the operating(a) system on your computer, its not your computer anymore. In the end, an operating system is just a series of ones and zeroes that, when interpreted by the processor, cause the tool to do real things. budge the ones and zeroes, and it will do something different. To understand why, find that operating system files are among the most trusted ones on the computer, and they generally run with system-level privileges.That is, they can do abrupt ly anything. Among other things, theyre trusted to manage drug exploiter accounts, handle battle cry changes, and enforce the rules governing who can do what on the computer. If a swingeing laugh at can change them, the now-untrustworthy files will do his bidding, and theres no limit to what he can do. He can steal passwords, make himself an administrator on the work, or add entirely new functions to the operating system. To prevent this type of attack, make sure that the system files (and the register, for that matter) are wholesome protect. right 3 If a deleterious fathead has unrestricted visible access to your computer, its not your computer anymore.He could backup the ultimate low-tech denial of service attack, and smash your computer with a sledgehammer. He could unplug the computer, haul it out of your building, and hold it for ransom. He could lift the computer from a diskette disk, and reformat your hard make. But wait, you say, Ive configured the BIOS on my computer to command prompt for a password when I turn the federal agency on. No problem if he can open the case and get his hands on the system ironware, he could just replace the BIOS chips. (Actually, there are even easier dashs). He could remove the hard drive from your computer, gear up it into his computer, and read it. He could make a duplicate of your hard drive and take it back his lair. at once there, hed stomach all the time in the world to point brute-force attacks, such as trying every thinkable logon password. Programs are in stock(predicate) to automate this and, given bountiful time, its almost sealed that he would succeed. one time that happens, righteousnesss 1 and 2 above apply He could replace your come uponboard with one that contains a radio transmitter. He could then observe everything you type, including your password.Always make sure that a computer is physically protected in a way thats consistent with its judge and remember that the va lue of a machine includes not unaccompanied the value of the hardware itself, but the value of the data on it, and the value of the access to your network that a hazardous guy could gain. At a minimum, business-critical machines like domain controllers, database emcees, and scrape/file servers should evermore be in a locked room that only people aerated with administration and maintenance can access. But you whitethorn want to consider protecting other machines as well, and potentially use additional preventative measures.If you travel with a lap cabbage, its inviolately critical that you protect it. The same features that make laptops great to travel with small size, light weight, and so forth also make them easy to steal. There are a variety of locks and alarms on tap(predicate) for laptops, and some models let you remove the hard drive and carry it with you. You also can use features like the Encrypting File scheme in Windows 2000 to diminish the misuse if psyche succeeded in stealing the computer. But the only way you can know with 100% certainty that your data is right and the hardware hasnt been tampered with is to keep the laptop on your person at all times while traveling.Law 4 If you allow a faulty guy to transfer programs to your wind vane site, its not your wind vane site any more. This is basically Law 1 in reverse. In that scenario, the deleterious guy tricks his victim into downloading a harmful program onto his machine and zip it. In this one, the magnanimous guy uploads a harmful program to a machine and runs it himself. Although this scenario is a danger anytime you allow strangers to connect to your machine, weathervane sites are involved in the overwhelming majority of these cases. Many people who cash in ones chips wind vane sites are too hospitable for their own good, and allow visitors to upload programs to the site and run them. As weve seen above, unpleasant things can happen if a bad guys program can run on y our machine.If you run a web site, you need to limit what visitors can do. You should only allow a program on your site if you wrote it yourself, or if you trust the receiveer who wrote it. But that may not be enough. If your web site is one of several hosted on a shared server, you need to be extra careful. If a bad guy can compromise one of the other sites on the server, its thinkable he could extend his control to the server itself, in which case he could control all of the sites on it including yours. If youre on a shared server, its important to pick up out what the server administrators policies are.Law 5 Weak passwords hooter strong security. The utilisation of having a logon process is to establish who you are. once the operating system knows who you are, it can grant or deny requests for system resources appropriately. If a bad guy learns your password, he can log on as you. In fact, as far as the operating system is concerned, he is you. some(prenominal) you can do on the system, he can do as well, because hes you. perhaps he wants to read sensitive information youve stored on your computer, like your email. maybe you have more privileges on the network than he does, and being you will let him do things he normally couldnt. Or maybe he just wants to do something malicious and blame it on you. In any case, its worth protecting your credentials.Always use a password its amazing how galore(postnominal) accounts have blank passwords. And choose a complex one. Dont use your dogs name, your anniversary date, or the name of the local football team. And dont use the word password Pick a password that has a mix of upper- and lower-case letters, number, punctuation mark marks, and so forth. Make it as long as possible. And change it often. Once youve picked a strong password, handle it appropriately. Dont write it down. If you absolutely must write it down, at the very least keep it in a safe or a locked drawer the first thing a bad guy whos hun ting for passwords will do is check for a xanthous sticky note on the side of your screen, or in the top desk drawer. Dont tell anyone what your password is. Remember what Ben Franklin said two people can keep a secret, but only if one of them is dead.Finally, consider using something stronger than passwords to identify yourself to the system. Windows 2000, for instance, supports the use of smart cards, which significantly strengthens the identity checking the system can perform. You may also want to consider biometric products like fingerprint and retina scanners.Law 6 A machine is only as secure as the administrator is trustworthy. Every computer must have an administrator individual who can install software, configure the operating system, add and manage user accounts, establish security policies, and handle all the other management tasks associated with care a computer up and running. By definition, these tasks fill that he have control over the machine.This puts the admini strator in a position of unique power. An untrustworthy administrator can negate every other security measure youve taken. He can change the permissions on the machine, modify the system security policies, install malicious software, add faux users, or do any of a million other things. He can defile virtually any protective measure in the operating system, because he controls it. Worst of all, he can cover his tracks. If you have an untrustworthy administrator, you have absolutely no security.When hiring a system administrator, get laid the position of trust that administrators occupy, and only hire people who warrant that trust. tender his references, and ask them roughly his previous work record, especially with regard to any security incidents at previous employers. If appropriate for your organization, you may also consider taking a step that banks and other security-conscious companies do, and require that your administrators pass a complete scope check at hiring time, a nd at periodic intervals afterward. Whatever criteria you select, apply them crosswise the board. Dont give anyone administrative privileges on your network unless theyve been vetted and this includes temporary employees and contractors, too.Next, take travel to help keep honest people honest. subprogram sign-in/sign-out sheets to track whos been in the server room. (You do have a server room with a locked door, right? If not, re-read Law 3). Implement a two person rule when installing or upgrading software. Diversify management tasks as much as possible, as a way of minimizing how much power any one administrator has. Also, dont use the Administrator account instead, give each administrator a separate account with administrative privileges, so you can tell whos doing what. Finally, consider taking steps to make it more tricky for a rogue administrator to cover his tracks. For instance, store canvas data on write-only media, or house ashes As audit data on System B, and make sure that the two systems have different administrators. The more accountable your administrators are, the less likely you are to have problems.Law 7 Encrypted data is only as secure as the decipherment key. Suppose you installed the biggest, strongest, most secure lock in the world on your front door, but you put the key under the front door mat. It wouldnt really matter how strong the lock is, would it? The critical factor would be the poor way the key was protected, because if a burglar could find it, hed have everything he inevitable to open the lock. Encrypted data works the same way no matter how strong the cryptoalgorithm is, the data is only as safe as the key that can decrypt it.Many operating systems and cryptographical software products give you an option to store cryptographic keys on the computer. The payoff is convenience you dont have to handle the key but it comes at the embody of security. The keys are usually obfuscated (that is, hidden), and some of the ob fuscation methods are quite good. But in the end, no matter how well-hidden the key is, if its on the machine it can be found. It has to be after all, the software can find it, so a sufficiently-motivated bad guy could find it, too. Whenever possible, use offline storage for keys. If the key is a word or phrase, memorize it. If not, export it to a floppy disk, make a backup copy, and store the copies in separate, secure locations.Law 8 An out of date virus scanner is only marginally promiseter than no virus scanner at all. Virus scanners work by comparison the data on your computer against a order of battle of virus theme songs. distributively signature is characteristic of a particular virus, and when the scanner finds data in a file, email, or elsewhere that matches the signature, it concludes that its found a virus. However, a virus scanner can only scan for the viruses it knows active. Its resilient that you keep your virus scanners signature file up to date, as new viru ses are created every day.The problem veritablely goes a bit deeper than this, though. Typically, a new virus will do the greatest amount of damage during the early stages of its life, on the dot because few people will be able to detect it. Once word gets around that a new virus is on the exposed and people update their virus signatures, the spread of the virus falls off drastically. The key is to get ahead of the curve, and have updated signature files on your machine before the virus hits.Virtually every maker of anti-virus software provides a way to get free updated signature files from their web site. In fact, many have push services, in which theyll send tattle every time a new signature file is released. utilisation these services. Also, keep the virus scanner itself that is, the scanning software updated as well. Virus writers periodically develop new techniques that require that the scanners change how they do their work.Law 9 controlling namelessness isnt practica l, in real life or on the web. in all valet interaction involves exchanging data of some kind. If somebody weaves enough of that data together, they can identify you. Think around all the information that a person can glean in just a scam conversation with you. In one glance, they can imagine your height, weight, and approximate age. Your express will credibly tell them what country youre from, and may even tell them what region of the country. If you talk about anything other than the weather, youll probably tell them something about your family, your interests, where you live, and what you do for a living. It doesnt take long for someone to collect enough information to figure out who you are. If you crave absolute anonymity, your best bet is to live in a cave and censor all human contact.The same thing is true of the Internet. If you visit a web site, the possessor can, if hes sufficiently motivated, find out who you are. After all, the ones and zeroes that make up the we b session have be able to find their way to the right place, and that place is your computer. There are a push-down list of measures you can take to disguise the bits, and the more of them you use, the more thoroughly the bits will be disguised. For instance, you could use network address translation to mask your actual IP address, suffer to an anonymizing service that launders the bits by relaying them from one end of the ether to the other, use a different ISP account for different purposes, surf certain sites only from public kiosks, and so on. All of these make it more difficult to keep an eye on who you are, but none of them make it impossible. Do you know for certain who operates the anonymizing service? peradventure its the same person who owns the web site you just visited Or what about that innocuous web site you visited yesterday, that offered to mail you a free $10 off coupon? Maybe the possessor is free to share information with other web site owners. If so, the sec ond web site owner may be able to correlate the information from the two sites and determine who you are.Does this mean that privateness on the web is a lost cause? Not at all. What it means is that the best way to protect your hiding on the Internet is the same as the way you protect your privacy in normal life through your behavior. empathize the privacy statements on the web sites you visit, and only do business with ones whose practices you assort with. If youre worried about cookies, disable them. Most importantly, avoid indiscriminate web surfing recognize that just as most cities have a bad side of town thats best avoided, the Internet does too. But if its complete and total anonymity you want, better start looking for that cave.The Art of WarSun-Tzu Wu is the reputed author of the Chinese classic Ping-fa (The Art of War), written approximately 475-221 B. C. Penned at a time when China was divided into six or seven states that often resorted to war with each other in the ir struggles for supremacy, it is a arrogant guide to strategy and tactics for rulers and commanders. In doing business on the Internet during this time of rampant computer viruses and hacker attacks it may be wise for us to follow some of his tactical principles in order to insure the safety of ourselves and our future clients.Know your enemy and know yourself in a hundred battles, you will never be defeated. When you are ignorant of the enemy but know yourself, your chances of winning or losing are equal. If ignorant both of your enemy and of yourself, you are sure to be defeated in every battle.In a chilling article entitled Big Brother is Watching Bob Sullivan of MSNBC recounts a tale during a recent visit to London Only moments after stepping into the Webshack Internet cafe in Londons Soho neighborhood, Mark asked me what I thought of George W. Bush and Al Gore. I wouldnt want Bush running things, he said. Because he cant run his Web site. Then he showed me a variety of ways t o hack Bushs Web sites. That was just the beginning of a far-reaching chat during which the group nearly convinced me Big Brother is in fact here in London. I dont know if he can run the free world, Mark said. He cant keep the Texas banking system computers secure.So-called 2600 clubs are a kind of hacker boy scout organization there are local 2600 chapters all around the globe. It is in this environment, and this mindset, that Londons hackers do their work. They do not analyze computer systems and learn how to break them out of spite, or some childish need to destroy Mark and friends see themselves as merely accumulating knowledge that could be used in self-defense if necessary. They are the citizens militia, the Freedom Fighters of the Information Age, trying to stay one step ahead of technology that could one day be turned against them.Jon-K Adams in his treatise entitled Hacker Ideology (aka Hacking Freedom) states that hackers have been called both techno-revolutionaries and h eroes of the computer revolution. Hacking has become a cultural icon about decentralized power. But for all that, hackers are reluctant rebels. They prefer to fight with code than with words. And they would rather appear on the net than at a news conference. Status in the hacker world cannot be granted by the general public it takes a hacker to know and appreciate a hacker. Thats part of the hackers revolutionary reluctance the other part is the news medias slant toward sensationalism, such as, A cyberspace dragnet snared fugitive hacker. The public tends to think of hacking as synonymous with computer crime, with breaking into computers and stealing and destroying valuable data. As a result of this tabloid mentality, the hacker attempts to fade into the digital world, where he-and it is almost everlastingly he-has a place if not aIn his self-conception, the hacker is not a criminal, but rather a person who enjoys exploring the details of programmable systems and how to stretch the ir capabilities. Which means that he is not necessarily a computer geek. The hacker defines himself in terms that extend beyond the computer, as an expert or enthusiast of any kind. One might be an astronomy hacker (Jargon File). So in the broadest sense of his self-conception, the hacker hacks knowledge he wants to know how things work, and the computer-the prototypical programmable system-simply offers more complexity and possibility, and thus more fascination, than most other things.>From this perspective, hacking appears to be a harmless if nerdish enthusiasm. But at the same time, this seemingly innocent enthusiasm is animated by an ideology that leads to a conflict with civil authority. The hacker is motivated by the belief that the search for knowledge is an end in itself and should be unrestricted. But invariably, when a hacker explores programmable systems, he encounters barriers that bureaucracies impose in the name of security. For the hacker, these security measures be come arbitrary limits placed on his exploration, or in cases that often lead to confrontation, they become the focus of further explorations for the hacker, security measures simply represent a more challenging programmable system. As a result, when a hacker explores such systems, he hacks knowledge, but ideologically he hacks the freedom to access knowledge.Political hackers are another group considering themselves modern freedom fighters. Hacktivists have officially moved from nerdish extremists to become the political protest visionaries of the digital age, a meeting at the Institute of Contemporary Arts in London was told on Thursday.Paul Mobbs, an experienced Internet activist and anti-capitalist protestor, will tell attendees that the techniques used by politically minded computer hackers &8212 from jamming corporate networks and sending email viruses to defacing Web sites &8212 has moved into the realm of political campaigning. Mobbs says that the term Hacktivism has been ado pted by so many different groups, from peaceful Net campaigners to Internet hate groups, that it is essentially meaningless, but claims that Internet protest is here to stay. It has a place, whether people like it or not, says Mobbs.Steve Mizrach in his 1997 dissertation entitled Is there a Hacker Ethic for 90s Hackers? delves into this subject in great detail. He describes the divergent groups of hackers and explains their modus operandiI define the computer underground as members of the following six groups. Sometimes I refer to the CU as 90s hackers or new hackers, as opposed to old hackers, who are hackers (old sense of the term) from the 60s who subscribed to the original Hacker Ethic. Hackers (Crackers, system intruders) These are people who attempt to penetrate security systems on remote computers. This is the new sense of the term, whereas the old sense of the term simply referred to a person who was capable of creating hacks, or elegant, unusual, and unexpected uses of tec hnology. Typical magazines (both print and online) read by hackers include 2600 and Iron Feather Journal. Phreaks (Phone Phreakers, Blue Boxers) These are people who attempt to use technology to explore and/or control the telephone system. Originally, this involved the use of blue boxes or tone generators, but as the phone company began using digital instead of electro-mechanical switches, the phreaks became more like hackers. Typical magazines read by Phreaks include Phrack, Line Noize, and New Fone Express. Virus writers (also, creators of Trojans, worms, logic bombs) These are people who write code which attempts to a) reproduce itself on other systems without authorization and b) often has a side effect, whether that be to display a message, play a prank, or trash a hard drive. Agents and spiders are essentially benevolent virii, raising the question of how underground this activity really is. Typical magazines read by Virus writers include 40HEX. Pirates Piracy is sort of a non-technical matter. Originally, it involved breaking copy protection on software, and this activity was called cracking. Nowadays, few software vendors use copy protection, but there are still various minor measures used to prevent the unauthorized duplication of software. Pirates devote themselves to thwarting these things and sharing commercial software freely with their friends. They usually read Pirate Newsletter and Pirate magazine. Cypherpunks (cryptoanarchists) Cypherpunks freely distribute the tools and methods for making use of strong encryption, which is basically unbreakable except by massive supercomputers. Because the NSA and FBI cannot break strong encryption (which is the basis of the PGP or Pretty Good Privacy), programs that employ it are classified as munitions, and distribution of algorithms that make use of it is a felony. Some cryptoanarchists advocate strong encryption as a tool to completely evade the State, by preventing any access whatsoever to financial or personal information. They typically read the Cypherpunks mailing list. Anarchists are committed to distributing illegal (or at least morally suspect) information, including but not limited to data on bombmaking, lockpicking, pornography, drug manufacturing, pirate radio, and cable and satellite TV piracy. In this parlance of the computer underground, anarchists are less likely to advocate the overthrow of government than the simple refusal to obey restrictions on distributing information. They tend to read Cult of the Dead Cow (CDC) and Activist Times Incorporated (ATI). Cyberpunk usually some combination of the above, plus interest in technological self-modification, science fiction of the Neuromancer genre, and interest in hardware hacking and street tech. A youth subculture in its own right, with some overlaps with the modern primitive and raver subcultures.So should we fear these geeky little mischief-makers?The New York Post revealed recently that a busboy allegedly manag ed to steal millions of dollars from the worlds richest people by stealing their identities and tricking credit agencies and brokerage firms. In his article describing this event Bob Sullivan says, Abraham Abdallah, I think, did us all a favor, for he has exposed as a sham the security at the worlds most important financial institutions. The same two free e-mail addresses were used to request financial transfers for six different wealthy Merrill Lynch clients, according to the Post story. Merrill Lynch didnt notice? Why would Merrill accept any transfer requests, indeed take any financial communication seriously at all, from a free, obviously unverified anonymous e-mail account? Im alarmed by the checks and balances that must be in place at big New York brokerage firms.Rather than being a story about a genius who almost got away, this is simply one more story of easy identity theft amid a tidal wave of similar crimes. The Federal Trade Commission has received 40,000 complaints of id entity theft since it started keeping track two years ago, but the agency is certain that represents only a fraction of real victims. This is a serious problem, long ignored by the industry. If fact, just last year the credit industry beat back a congressional bill known as The Identity Theft Protection Act, claiming it would be too expensive for them. Clearly there has to be more leveling of the playing field. We have to hold banks and credit unions accountable.Last month the U.S. Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) was again warning electronic-commerce Web sites to patch their Windows-based systems to protect their data against hackers.The FBIs National Infrastructure Protection Center (NIPC) has coordinated investigations over the past several months into organized hacker activities targeting e-commerce sites. More than 40 victims in 20 states have been identified in the ongoing investigations, which have included law enforcement agencies outside the United States and private s ector officials.The investigations have uncovered several organized hacker groups from Russia, the Ukraine, and elsewhere in Eastern Europe that have penetrated U.S. e-commerce and online banking computer systems by exploiting vulnerabilities in the Windows NT operating system, the statement said. Microsoft has released patches for these vulnerabilities, which can be downloaded from Microsofts Web site for free.Once the hackers gain access, they download proprietary information, customer databases, and credit card information, according to the FBI. The hackers subsequently contact the company and attempt to extort money by offering to patch the system and by offering to protect the companys systems from exploitation by other hackers.The hackers tell the victim that without their services they cannot guarantee that other hackers will not access their networks and post stolen credit card information and details about the sites security vulnerability on the Internet. If the company doe s not pay or hire the group for its security services, the threats escalate, the FBI said. Investigators also believe that in some instances the credit card information is being sold to organized crime groups.Defend yourself when you cannot defeat the enemy, and attack the enemy when you can.Scott Culp in a detailed list of security precautions on Microsofts Web page suggests that there are ten immutable laws of security.Law 1 If a bad guy can persuade you to run his program on your computer, its not your computer anymore. Its an unfortunate fact of computer science when a computer program runs, it will do what its programmed to do, even if its programmed to be harmful. When you choose to run a program, you are making a decision to turn over control of your computer to it. Thats why its important to never run, or even download, a program from an untrusted source and by source, I mean the person who wrote it, not the person who gave it to you.Law 2 If a bad guy can alter the operati ng system on your computer, its not your computer anymore. In the end, an operating system is just a series of ones and zeroes that, when interpreted by the processor, cause the machine to do certain things. Change the ones and zeroes, and it will do something different. To understand why, consider that operating system files are among the most trusted ones on the computer, and they generally run with system-level privileges.That is, they can do absolutely anything. Among other things, theyre trusted to manage user accounts, handle password changes, and enforce the rules governing who can do what on the computer. If a bad guy can change them, the now-untrustworthy files will do his bidding, and theres no limit to what he can do. He can steal passwords, make himself an administrator on the machine, or add entirely new functions to the operating system. To prevent this type of attack, make sure that the system files (and the registry, for that matter) are well protected.Law 3 If a bad guy has unrestricted physical access to your computer, its not your computer anymore.He could mount the ultimate low-tech denial of service attack, and smash your computer with a sledgehammer. He could unplug the computer, haul it out of your building, and hold it for ransom. He could boot the computer from a floppy disk, and reformat your hard drive. But wait, you say, Ive configured the BIOS on my computer to prompt for a password when I turn the power on. No problem if he can open the case and get his hands on the system hardware, he could just replace the BIOS chips. (Actually, there are even easier ways). He could remove the hard drive from your computer, install it into his computer, and read it. He could make a duplicate of your hard drive and take it back his lair. Once there, hed have all the time in the world to conduct brute-force attacks, such as trying every possible logon password. Programs are available to automate this and, given enough time, its almost certain tha t he would succeed. Once that happens, Laws 1 and 2 above apply He could replace your keyboard with one that contains a radio transmitter. He could then monitor everything you type, including your password.Always make sure that a computer is physically protected in a way thats consistent with its value and remember that the value of a machine includes not only the value of the hardware itself, but the value of the data on it, and the value of the access to your network that a bad guy could gain. At a minimum, business-critical machines like domain controllers, database servers, and print/file servers should always be in a locked room that only people charged with administration and maintenance can access. But you may want to consider protecting other machines as well, and potentially using additional protective measures.If you travel with a laptop, its absolutely critical that you protect it. The same features that make laptops great to travel with small size, light weight, and so forth also make them easy to steal. There are a variety of locks and alarms available for laptops, and some models let you remove the hard drive and carry it with you. You also can use features like the Encrypting File System in Windows 2000 to mitigate the damage if someone succeeded in stealing the computer. But the only way you can know with 100% certainty that your data is safe and the hardware hasnt been tampered with is to keep the laptop on your person at all times while traveling.Law 4 If you allow a bad guy to upload programs to your web site, its not your web site any more. This is basically Law 1 in reverse. In that scenario, the bad guy tricks his victim into downloading a harmful program onto his machine and running it. In this one, the bad guy uploads a harmful program to a machine and runs it himself. Although this scenario is a danger anytime you allow strangers to connect to your machine, web sites are involved in the overwhelming majority of these cases. Many peo ple who operate web sites are too hospitable for their own good, and allow visitors to upload programs to the site and run them. As weve seen above, unpleasant things can happen if a bad guys program can run on your machine.If you run a web site, you need to limit what visitors can do. You should only allow a program on your site if you wrote it yourself, or if you trust the developer who wrote it. But that may not be enough. If your web site is one of several hosted on a shared server, you need to be extra careful. If a bad guy can compromise one of the other sites on the server, its possible he could extend his control to the server itself, in which case he could control all of the sites on it including yours. If youre on a shared server, its important to find out what the server administrators policies are.Law 5 Weak passwords trump strong security. The purpose of having a logon process is to establish who you are. Once the operating system knows who you are, it can grant or den y requests for system resources appropriately. If a bad guy learns your password, he can log on as you. In fact, as far as the operating system is concerned, he is you. Whatever you can do on the system, he can do as well, because hes you. Maybe he wants to read sensitive information youve stored on your computer, like your email. Maybe you have more privileges on the network than he does, and being you will let him do things he normally couldnt. Or maybe he just wants to do something malicious and blame it on you. In any case, its worth protecting your credentials.Always use a password its amazing how many accounts have blank passwords. And choose a complex one. Dont use your dogs name, your anniversary date, or the name of the local football team. And dont use the word password Pick a password that has a mix of upper- and lower-case letters, number, punctuation marks, and so forth. Make it as long as possible. And change it often. Once youve picked a strong password, handle it ap propriately. Dont write it down. If you absolutely must write it down, at the very least keep it in a safe or a locked drawer the first thing a bad guy whos hunting for passwords will do is check for a yellow sticky note on the side of your screen, or in the top desk drawer. Dont tell anyone what your password is. Remember what Ben Franklin said two people can keep a secret, but only if one of them is dead.Finally, consider using something stronger than passwords to identify yourself to the system. Windows 2000, for instance, supports the use of smart cards, which significantly strengthens the identity checking the system can perform. You may also want to consider biometric products like fingerprint and retina scanners.Law 6 A machine is only as secure as the administrator is trustworthy. Every computer must have an administrator someone who can install software, configure the operating system, add and manage user accounts, establish security policies, and handle all the other mana gement tasks associated with keeping a computer up and running. By definition, these tasks require that he have control over the machine.This puts the administrator in a position of unequalled power. An untrustworthy administrator can negate every other security measure youve taken. He can change the permissions on the machine, modify the system security policies, install malicious software, add bogus users, or do any of a million other things. He can subvert virtually any protective measure in the operating system, because he controls it. Worst of all, he can cover his tracks. If you have an untrustworthy administrator, you have absolutely no security.When hiring a system administrator, recognize the position of trust that administrators occupy, and only hire people who warrant that trust. Call his references, and ask them about his previous work record, especially with regard to any security incidents at previous employers. If appropriate for your organization, you may also consid er taking a step that banks and other security-conscious companies do, and require that your administrators pass a complete background check at hiring time, and at periodic intervals afterward. Whatever criteria you select, apply them across the board. Dont give anyone administrative privileges on your network unless theyve been vetted and this includes temporary employees and contractors, too.Next, take steps to help keep honest people honest. Use sign-in/sign-out sheets to track whos been in the server room. (You do have a server room with a locked door, right? If not, re-read Law 3). Implement a two person rule when installing or upgrading software. Diversify management tasks as much as possible, as a way of minimizing how much power any one administrator has. Also, dont use the Administrator account instead, give each administrator a separate account with administrative privileges, so you can tell whos doing what. Finally, consider taking steps to make it more difficult for a rogue administrator to cover his tracks. For instance, store audit data on write-only media, or house System As audit data on System B, and make sure that the two systems have different administrators. The more accountable your administrators are, the less likely you are to have problems.Law 7 Encrypted data is only as secure as the decryption key. Suppose you installed the biggest, strongest, most secure lock in the world on your front door, but you put the key under the front door mat. It wouldnt really matter how strong the lock is, would it? The critical factor would be the poor way the key was protected, because if a burglar could find it, hed have everything he needed to open the lock. Encrypted data works the same way no matter how strong the cryptoalgorithm is, the data is only as safe as the key that can decrypt it.Many operating systems and cryptographic software products give you an option to store cryptographic keys on the computer. The advantage is convenience you don t have to handle the key but it comes at the cost of security. The keys are usually obfuscated (that is, hidden), and some of the obfuscation methods are quite good. But in the end, no matter how well-hidden the key is, if its on the machine it can be found. It has to be after all, the software can find it, so a sufficiently-motivated bad guy could find it, too. Whenever possible, use offline storage for keys. If the key is a word or phrase, memorize it. If not, export it to a floppy disk, make a backup copy, and store the copies in separate, secure locations.Law 8 An out of date virus scanner is only marginally better than no virus scanner at all. Virus scanners work by comparing the data on your computer against a collection of virus signatures. Each signature is characteristic of a particular virus, and when the scanner finds data in a file, email, or elsewhere that matches the signature, it concludes that its found a virus. However, a virus scanner can only scan for the viruse s it knows about. Its vital that you keep your virus scanners signature file up to date, as new viruses are created every day.The problem actually goes a bit deeper than this, though. Typically, a new virus will do the greatest amount of damage during the early stages of its life, precisely because few people will be able to detect it. Once word gets around that a new virus is on the loose and people update their virus signatures, the spread of the virus falls off drastically. The key is to get ahead of the curve, and have updated signature files on your machine before the virus hits.Virtually every maker of anti-virus software provides a way to get free updated signature files from their web site. In fact, many have push services, in which theyll send notification every time a new signature file is released. Use these services. Also, keep the virus scanner itself that is, the scanning software updated as well. Virus writers periodically develop new techniques that require that th e scanners change how they do their work.Law 9 Absolute anonymity isnt practical, in real life or on the web. All human interaction involves exchanging data of some kind. If someone weaves enough of that data together, they can identify you. Think about all the information that a person can glean in just a short conversation with you. In one glance, they can gauge your height, weight, and approximate age. Your accent will probably tell them what country youre from, and may even tell them what region of the country. If you talk about anything other than the weather, youll probably tell them something about your family, your interests, where you live, and what you do for a living. It doesnt take long for someone to collect enough information to figure out who you are. If you crave absolute anonymity, your best bet is to live in a cave and shun all human contact.The same thing is true of the Internet. If you visit a web site, the owner can, if hes sufficiently motivated, find out who y ou are. After all, the ones and zeroes that make up the web session have be able to find their way to the right place, and that place is your computer. There are a lot of measures you can take to disguise the bits, and the more of them you use, the more thoroughly the bits will be disguised. For instance, you could use network address translation to mask your actual IP address, subscribe to an anonymizing service that launders the bits by relaying them from one end of the ether to the other, use a different ISP account for different purposes, surf certain sites only from public kiosks, and so on. All of these make it more difficult to determine who you are, but none of them make it impossible. Do you know for certain who operates the anonymizing service? Maybe its the same person who owns the web site you just visited Or what about that innocuous web site you visited yesterday, that offered to mail you a free $10 off coupon? Maybe the owner is willing to share information with other web site owners. If so, the second web site owner may be able to correlate the information from the two sites and determine who you are.Does this mean that privacy on the web is a lost cause? Not at all. What it means is that the best way to protect your privacy on the Internet is the same as the way you protect your privacy in normal life through your behavior. Read the privacy statements on the web sites you visit, and only do business with ones whose practices you agree with. If youre worried about cookies, disable them. Most importantly, avoid indiscriminate web surfing recognize that just as most cities have a bad side of town thats best avoided, the Internet does too. But if its complete and total anonymity you want, better start looking for that cave.